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13 E-learning theories
Associative/ Behaviourist approaches
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Design principles
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Looking for observable behaviour
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Explicitly mentioning course outcomes
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Behavioural objectives
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Ability to test achievement of learning outcomes
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Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
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Decomposing learning into small chunks
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Routines of organised activity
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Learning hierarchies (controversial!)
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Sequencing learning materials with increasing complexity
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Giving direct feedback on learning
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Individualized learning trajectories
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Cognitive psychology (constructivism)
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Types of memory (sensory – short term – long term)
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Maximize sensations: strategic screen layout
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Research on memory, perception, reasoning, concept formation.
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Maximize sensations: well-paced information
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Learning is active
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Maximize sensations: highlighting main elements
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Learning is individual (knowledge construction)
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Relate difficulty level to cognitive level of learner: providing links to easier and more advanced resources
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Use of comparative advance organizers
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Use of conceptual models
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Importance of prior knowledge structures
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Pre-instructional & prerequisite questions
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Experimentation toward discovery of broad principles
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Promote deep processing
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Use of information maps zooming in/ out
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Cognitive Apprenticeship (Brown et al, 1989)
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Interactive environments for construction of understanding
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Metacognition (reflection, self-regulation)
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Relate to real-life (apply, analyse, synthesize)
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Learning styles (controversial!)
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Address various learning styles
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Cognitive styles
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Let students prepare a journal
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Dual coding theory
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Use both visual information and text
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Motivate learners (ARCS model)
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Use techniques to catch attention, explain relevance, build confidence and increase satisfaction
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Situated learning (constructivism)
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Personal knowledge construction
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Personal meaning to learning
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Situated learning: motivation
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Relate to real life (relevance)
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Holistic/ Systemic approaches
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Conduct research on internet
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Build confidence with learners
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Identity development
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Use of first-hand information (not filtered by instructor)
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Communities of Practice (Lave & Wenger)
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Collaborative activities
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Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
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Fostering the growth of learning communities
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Learning as act of participation
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Legitimate (peripheral) practice, apprenticeships
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Lifelong learning
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Authentic learning and assessment tasks
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Connectivism
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Information explosion
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Digital literacies
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Learning in network environment
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Keep up-to-date in field
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Knowledge base
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Multi-channel learning
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Distributed learning
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Build diversity, openness in learning (different opinions), autonomy
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Personal Learning Environment
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self-directed learning, just-in-time |
Constructivism – Jonassen et al 1999
Social Constructions – Vygotsky 1986
Activity Theory – Engeström et al 1999
Experiational Learning – Kolb 1984
Instructional Design – Gagné et al 2004
Networked and collaborative work – McConnell 2000
Learning Design Jochems et al 2004
Primary: presenting information
Secondary: active learning and feedback
Tertiary: dialogue and new learning.
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13 Learning Theories in a SimpleMinds mind map
Fig. 1. Learning Theories. Click on this and you can grab the original in a variety of sizes from the Picasa Web Album where it resides. (Created using SimpleMinds APP)
In an effort to impose some logic these are now grouped and various links also made. The reality might be take a large bowl of water then drip into these 12 coloured inks. The reality of how we learn is complex and will only be made the more so with fMRI imaging and advances in neuroscience.
My favourite Learning Theory here is one that Knud Illeris (2009) came up with – not learning at all, resistance too or defence learning. You just block it. That’s how I did 9 years of Latin and can decline how to love a table – I have no idea anymore what ‘ramabottom’ or some such means either. Ditto French as taught before secondary school and Chemistry – right or wrong, tick and box in a multiple choice each week. Still, for someone who couldn’t give a fig for either this approach got me through on a C grade. For French the ‘holistic’ approach worked a treat – French exchange, then back to hitch through France with some French guys who didn’t have a word of English, then got a job out there. Chemistry worked best with my Chemistry 7 set.
Activity Theory and Communities of Practice are surely in meltdown with the connectivity of Web 2.0?
The nodes and silos are too easily circumvented by each of us going directly to the source. ‘Community of Ideas’ works best for me.
Learning Theories
1) Neurophysiological – stimulus response, optmization of memory processes: Sylvester, 1995; Edelman, 1994; Jarvis, 1987.
2) Holistic – Illeris, 2009.
3) Behaviorist – Stimulus response pairs, Skinner, 1974.
4) Cognitive – Communication, how the brain receives, internalises and recalls information, problem solving, explanation, recombination, contrast, building upon information structures, focus on internal cognitive structures, models, methods and schemas, information processing, inferences.; Wenger, 1987; Hutchins, 1993; Anderson, 1983; Piaget, 1952.
5) Constructivist – Learners build their own mental structures, design orientated, assimilative learning (Illeris, 2009); task-orientated, cohort/collaborative group. Leonard, 2010): Vygotsky, 1934; Piaget, 1954; Bruner, 1993; Papert, 1980.
6) Transformative Learning – significant (Roger, 1951, 59); Transformative (Mezirow, 1994); Expansive (Engestrom, 1987); Transitional (Alheit, 1994).
7) Social – Socialization, a psychological perspective, imitation of norms, acquisition of membership, interpersonal relations (Bandura, 1977)
8) Communities of Practice – The focus is on participation and the role this plays to attract and retain new ‘members’; knowledge transfer is closely tied to the social situation where the knowledge is learned, (Learnard, 2010); shared, social and almost unintentional; legitimate peripheral participation (Lave, ); taking part in the practices of the community. A framework that considers learning in social terms. Lave & Wenger, 1991.
9) Communities of Interest –
10) Accommodative Learning – Illeris, 2007.
11) Activity Theories – Learners bridge the knowledge gap via the zone of proximal development, Wertsch, 1984. Historically constructed activities as entities. Thinking, reasoning and learning is a socially and culturally mediated phenomenon. Learnard, 2010. Engestrom, 1987; Vygotsky, 1934; Wertsch, 1984.
12) Organizational – How people in an organisation learn and how organisations learn. Organizational systems, structures and politics. Brown and Dugiod, 1995. Noaka and Takeuchi, 1991.
13) Resistance to/defence learning – Illeris, 2007
70,000 years ago we were getting something right in relation to learning and responding to circumstances and left Africa.
We have been learning in communities ever since.
Perhaps population pressures or stability permitted reading and our inexorable desire to innovate led to the printing press and more since besides. Meanwhile populations and civilizations grew and society required or permitted the development of formal learning.
For me all the learning theories are observations of human behaviour as individuals or in groups.
Open learning is if anything taking us back to learning on the fly, in more vibrant less formal communities online. A response to the necessity of educating 7 billion and solving many of the human created problems on this dot in space called Earth.
I rather think the theories come AFTER the event to philosophise over what is taking place – in a commercial and entrepreneurial world you get on with it.
Take virtual worlds – they are commercial gaming and entertainment environments which educators would like to use and as they use them explain, position and justify.
- All I want to know is, does it work?
- Is it affordable?
- Is it scaleable?
- Is it going anywhere?
- If not ditch it snd try something else.
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‘Expansive learning is based on Vygotsky, though three times removed; it implies that we learn within activity pockets as individuals and groups. The interplay between these groups are the consequential objects of learning that in turn transmogrify in the presence of other objects. Solving problems, dealing with contradictions, may come about as these learning systems slide or shift’. Engeström (2001)
I’ve taken this, from Engestrom and considered this as the interplay between SIX people (or groups) – or a mix of the two. Six people who are bringing to the discussion their different backgrounds and ideas in order to address a topic. At arm’s length, the objects, the ideas, views or knowledge that they have begins to take on an identity of its own.
‘Expansive learning is based on Vygotsky, though three times removed; it implies that we learn within activity pockets as individuals and groups. The interplay between these groups are the consequential objects of learning that in turn transmogrify in the presence of other objects. Solving problems, dealing with contradictions, may come about as these learning systems slide or shift’.
Amyone care to comment?
This is my take on a topic that has taken me through the briar-bush and out the other side. Has the struggle been worth it. The challenge I feel I face when reading papers such is this is how to make the subject matter comprehensible to the non-academic, I challenge I throw down to every academic: it is possible to make yourselves understood by the majority, rather than a minority.
REFERENCE
Engeström (2001) article, Expansive learning at work: toward an activity theoretical reconceptualisation
The creation of Kindle Knowledge
Unable to sleep I do this.
A mini-reflection on building a profile in Linked In.
Then get on with reflecting on my notes on Vygotsky (1997/1926).
The more I read, the greater my fascination. Vygotsky (translated in 1997 from the 1926 original in Russian) I find like H.G.Wells, also of the era, extraordinarily readable and current. A considerable amount of ‘Educational Psychology rings true.
There is then at the confluence of a thought regarding Vygotsky as uploaded this image above; I am only saved from tears by what I was reading about Educational Psychology – understanding does this to you.
This screen image on a Kindle reminds me of my late father, a conservationist, who would have been 80 last week.
The thought produced a physical response.
(James, 1929)
Have we all had an encounter with a thief? If the image of the birds has me thinking about my father (conservationist, ornothologist, rubbish dad … ) then the mention of the word ‘thief’ has me visualising a large screw-diver, the weapon of choice I picked up in the garage as someone tried to break in.
(By now we’re living in a studio flat on Hamilton Terrace, though chronologically we’ve slid back a few years).
The text from Vygotsky has a resonance, and as I keep reading, a convincing argument in relation to education.
Work with these kinds of responses of the individual = success
My concern in relation to e-learning is how easy it is to duplicate what is inappropriate for a class of 30, but the authors (and their sponsors) believe is appropriate for 10,000.
Which in turn brings me to the week 2 activity in H800 of the MAODE
Online through the participation and collaboration of others in your immediate circle, which includes your tutor group, module cohort, wide MAODE colleagues and like-minded OU friends identified here, can your learning experience be personalised.
Ergo, we have a duty to comment, and only through writing ourselves, might we enable (or expose) our selves to comment in turn.
It does strike me that there is a ‘layer’ to the OU blogs-cum-threads that is missing: the MAODE or ‘Education’ blog platform.
As I’ve commented some thousand entries back, writing here is perhaps like doodling on a scroll of toilet paper in a public convenience.
Not the image or sentiment I wanted to conjure up, but a scroll, with perforations top and bottom comes to mind. What you do with this script if you’ve even read it is for your mind to decide.
Kindle doesn’t give you a page number, presumable all e-Reader follow a similar convention. To cite do I give Location 1874?
Without knowing what I am doing or what it will achieve I search ‘James’ in the Kindle PC version, am about to click when a drop down offers me not a reference at the back of the ‘book’ but a link to Google or Wikipedia. I click Wikipedia and seamlessly, find myself here.
(Wikipedia, accessed 17 FEB 2011)
And as we’re talking about physical responses to things then this brought a shiver down my spine and matching the cliched ‘reflexive’ action my draw dropped.
I don’t know what planet I’m living on any more.
No wonder I can’t sleep, Kindle content isn’t a soporific book, rather it’s wired into your cerebellum where in an action not dissimilar to Ken Dodd’s tickling stick, your mind is suitably agitated.
Ken Dodd and his tickling stick 😦
(I saw him live as a 10 year old, insanity. About as funny as my Granny sitting on a bowl of peaches).
P.S. Whether for personal, OU or the wider world, this demonstrates a value of blogging … just start to write and let your mind unravel. And if you’ll only get quiet for 90 minutes in the dead of night, that’s what you’ll have to do.
REFERENCE
Vygotsky.L.S. (1978) Mind in Society. The development of higher psychological process. Cambridge. MA.
Williams, J (1929) Quoted in Educational Psychology, Vygotsky. Chapter 6.
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